Purpose
Guidance for veterinarians and others conducting training in pregnancy testing and artificial insemination.
Advocacy for best practice animal welfare principles to be used in the training of students in pregnancy diagnosis and artificial insemination of cattle, including in veterinary teaching institutions and other relevant training institutions.
Policy
Pregnancy testing/diagnosis (PD) and artificial insemination (AI) are important and useful tools that help improve economic performance and management of cattle production systems and the genetic improvement of cattle. These procedures must be conducted competently and with due regard for animal welfare. Personnel should be appropriately educated and trained in performing these procedures in accordance with permissions relevant to regulatory acts. Instructional programs for cattle PD and AI must be approved by and adhere to strict animal welfare and Animal Ethics Committee (AEC) guidelines.
Definitions
The following definitions apply for the purposes of this policy:
Pregnancy testing/diagnosis: The detection of pregnancy (or non-pregnancy) by trans-rectal (or per-rectal) manual palpation and/or trans-rectal ultrasonography.
Artificial insemination: The placement of semen into the female reproductive tract to optimise the possibility of subsequent conception. In cattle, this is usually the uterine body.
Background
Alternatives to live animal use
Students must receive prior instruction on the relevant aspects of cattle anatomy and physiology. They should practice techniques with abattoir-derived organs and/or appropriate models before using live animals.
An acceptable level of competence in trainees can only be achieved by undertaking supervised training with live animals.
Training Programs – Principle of Skill Development
Training programs offer a valuable opportunity to learn fundamental principles and build basic competency in pregnancy diagnosis and AI. However, it is important to recognise that achieving proficiency in these skills requires extensive practice beyond the scope of a single course. Trainees should apply the principles learned in training with more animals over time, preferably in commercial or private settings, where examinations are limited to a single examination per animal for the trainee. This gradual approach helps minimise stress and any potential trauma on individual animals while allowing progressive skill development.
The usual sequence of learning involves:
- Overview of relevant theory, anatomy and physiology
- Examination of models and abattoir specimens
- Practice using simulators
- Examination of live animals under instruction and supervision
- Examination of live animals independently
Exposure to real-world challenges presented by live animals, combined with repeated practice in commercial settings, will ultimately refine technique and build proficiency. This structured approach ensures that trainees develop their skills thoughtfully and ethically, while minimising discomfort and repeated use of animals.
Procedures
The use of live animals in schools or training must be approved in advance by an Animal Ethics Committee (AEC) unless the use is for routine clinical practice.
Instructors should be veterinarians with appropriate experience or instructors approved for the purpose by the AEC. There must be at least one instructor for every 10 students in the earlier phases of training although the layout of some facilities may require a higher instructor to student ratio in order to facilitate effective supervision of animals and trainees.
Instructors and students should:
- wear an appropriate shoulder-length glove (if plastic, preferably with seams inward)
- be free of skin lesions on the arm and hand
- use adequate amounts of appropriate lubrication, ensure fingernails are cut short, and remove jewellery and watches on fingers and arms
- employ appropriate hygiene measures
- use appropriate equipment that is designed for the purpose, including proper restraint for the animal
- be advised about protection against Q fever, or tested for immunity and vaccinated if not immune
- if immunosuppressed or pregnant receive medical advice as to whether to participate in a training course. If medical advice permits inclusion in a training course, then appropriate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) should be worn, and adjustments should be made to mitigate potential risks.
Animals used for instruction must be:
- examined by a veterinarian before the class and deemed in good health and suitable for the purpose intended
- of appropriate size and physical development
- individually identified and of suitable temperament
- free from abnormal vaginal discharge
In addition, it is recommended that the current risk of transmission of leptospirosis, enzootic bovine leukosis and pestivirus is known and appropriate control measures be taken.
Guidelines
Welfare considerations
In general, no drugs are to be used on, or administered to, animals involved (see exceptions for the preparation of animals for AI schools).
Cows should be examined by a suitably experienced veterinarian to assess their suitability for use, with particular emphasis on temperament and the size of the anal orifice. Only those assessed as unlikely to suffer undue trauma should be selected for use.
Instructors and students must observe good animal handling principles to minimise animal stress.
Animals should be well hydrated prior to use and dietary management should occur to ensure that faecal scores are between a score of 2 to 4, where 1 = watery, resembles pea soup, to 5, there are firm, dry balls or masses of manure that stack over 5 cm when defaecated (Hughes, 2001) . Lower scores may indicate the presence of gastrointestinal irritation or illness while higher scores may increase the probability of requiring more entries for an examination for AI and increase the risk of rectal trauma when conducting examinations.
Animals must be restrained in suitable equipment to minimise movement and inadvertent damage to either the cow, instructors or trainees.
Equipment and materials used for AI and PD must be of good quality and meet appropriate hygiene standards.
Animals should only be used in PD and AI schools:
- No more than 2 hours per day
- No more than once weekly for 4 weeks before being rested for at least 4 weeks
- No more than 12 sessions per year
- No more than 5 examinations for pregnancy diagnosis per day by novice students or 8 procedures per day by more experienced students
- Not inseminated more than twice per day by novice students or four times per day by more experienced students
- Not be used for training in pregnancy diagnosis and AI in the same session
- Note that the additional cumulative burden of impacts on the animal (such as time spent in yards before and after the class, length of time off feed and water, etc) needs to be also factored into decisions about frequency and duration of animal use
- The supervisor should also consider setting a maximum time for the length of each examination; the duration should be neither too long nor too short – protracted examinations risk causing stress and trauma, but hurried examinations by inexperienced students can also result in physical trauma to the animal
The above guidelines are based on the authors’ experience given the lack of definitive data. But if in doubt, the precautionary principle should apply.
An appropriate method (e.g. stock marker, removable magnets adhered to a post adjacent to the animal that are moved or removed following examination of an animal or a method prescribed by the AEC) should be used to track individual animal use. Records of animal usage, adverse events and treatments must be kept for all animals used for pregnancy examinations.
A minimum of five cows are to be provided for each trainee inseminator (i.e. a course with 10 participants will require a minimum of 50 cows for the practical training sessions and the examination).
Pregnant animals or those with abnormal female tract development (e.g. freemartins) must not be used for inseminator training.
Animals must be immediately withdrawn if they exhibit unsuitable temperament or distress, severe straining, excessive rectal ballooning, or unexpected tissue damage. These animals must not be considered for reuse until either healing has occurred (normally three weeks) and their use has been approved following inspection by a veterinarian.
Where evidence of blood is found on a rectal sleeve following examination an assessment must be made as to whether the animal should be withdrawn from the learning activity and if an internal examination is required. The following guide is suggested (Table 1):
Table 1. Numerical scores assigned at the time of a bovine rectal examination in relation to the visual presence of blood on a rectal sleeve and recommendations.*
|
Score |
Visual evidence of blood on a rectal sleeve |
Description |
Recommendation
|
|
1 |
None |
No visible blood on the rectal sleeve. The examination was performed with no indication of trauma or irritation to the rectal mucosa. |
Continue with next examination. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
2 |
Trace |
A faint or barely noticeable smear or spot(s) of blood, suggesting very mild irritation but no significant trauma. Can often be addressed with increased lubrication. |
Ensure adequate lubrication applied for next examination. Advise caution, reassess sleeve on exit, and monitor for any subsequent signs of trauma |
|
|
|
|
|
|
3 |
Slight |
A small but noticeable amount of blood, typically spread thinly on the sleeve. Indicates irritation or minor injury. |
Exercise caution and immediately withdraw from further examination. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
4 |
Moderate |
A more pronounced presence of blood, with clear streaks or patches on the rectal sleeve. This suggests a more significant level of trauma. |
Withdraw the animal. Perform a thorough internal examination to check for rectal tears, injuries, or significant trauma. Provide appropriate care. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
5 |
Severe |
A substantial amount of blood on the rectal sleeve, often covering larger areas or the presence of bright red blood clots. Indicates significant injury to the rectal tissue. |
Withdraw the animal. Perform an immediate internal examination. Seek veterinary intervention if significant injury or trauma is suspected. |
*Note all animals should be confined and monitored from a distance for 2 hours following a practical teaching activity and closely monitored for 48 hours for systemic evidence of illness or irritation.
Preparation of animals for artificial insemination training classes
Animals that will be subjected to transcervical artificial insemination in a training activity must be:
- Pregnancy tested and confirmed as being not detectably pregnant before enrolment in a learning activity
- Synchronised in their oestrous cycles so that animals have a high probability of being in oestrus at the time of the learning activity. This is to ensure the cervix is softened and open, so that insertion of the AI gun does not cause discomfort or tissue trauma. Where applicable, owners should be advised of meat withdrawal intervals.
After the school:
Animals should be confined and observed for at least 2 hours and then monitored twice daily for the first two days, and then once daily for the next five days.
Veterinary attention should be obtained for any animal that exhibits any of the following:
- signs of pain on defecation
- discharge from the rectum or vulva
- persistent abdominal/rectal straining for longer than 30 minutes after discontinuing use
- visual evidence of dehydration
- failing to eat, and
- signs indicating peritonitis or fever (e.g. depression, lethargy, ‘saw horse’ stance)
Records must be kept of all findings and treatments.
An autopsy must be performed on any animal that dies unexpectedly (or is euthanised) during or within one month following a school while part of an AEC approved project, and the supervising AEC must be provided with the report as soon as possible. An adequate record of students and instructors should be kept by the organisation (to be used in the event of a zoonotic disease developing after the school).
Other relevant policies and position statements
References
Beggs, D. S. (Ed.). (2014). Pregnancy diagnosis in cattle (3rd Edition.). Australian Cattle Vets, Australian Veterinary Association.
Cavalieri, J., Dowling, B., Foyle, L., Godfrey, C., Lloyd, J., Penny, J., Tranter, W., Watts, S., Wearn, J., & Willis, G. (2023). Guidelines for the use and reuse of animals for teaching within veterinary medical education programs. Clinical Theriogenology, 15, 29–37.
Hughes, J. (2001). A system for assessing cow cleanliness. In Practice (London 1979), 23(9), 517–524.
NSW Department of Industries and Regional Development. (2023). Teaching artificial insemination and pregnancy testing in cattle. https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/dpi/animals/animal-ethics-infolink/arrp-policies,-guidelines-and-factsheets/use-of-animals-in-teaching/artificial-insemination